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Mudraa Raakshas (written by Vishaakhdatt around 800 AD) is a popular drama, though remained virtually unknown for centuries in modern India,  yet its interpretation is still in infancy. To appreciate this court drama it is essential to recreate the ambiance in which it was first staged and realize that it had nothing to do with Bihaar. The word Mudraa in Sanskrit means a signet-ring and the plot is woven around the stealing of the signet-ring of Raakshas, the minister of the Nand.

This need not immediately remind one of the possession of Alexander’s signet-ring by Perdikkas which was probably stolen and which played a crucial role in the succession battle.

Bhaguraayan who spies on his master may be an echo of Bagoas the younger who is widely suspected to have been an agent.

Calesthenes was probably caught up in the tragic course of events. There are slanted references to the aging chamberlain who is clearly Permenio. The flaunting of wealth by the treasurer in the play points to Harpalus’ misadventures. Poisoning, Poison-maidens and forged letters have all been discussed in relation to Alexander’s death and these are also the central elements of the play. Raakshas, after whom the drama is named is clearly Roxyartes or Oxyartes as can be seen from the name of his daughter Roxane. It is more than likely that Tissaraxa, one of Ashok’s wives, was related to Raxasa’s line.

From http://1stmuse.com/frames/index.html
Alexander, the King of Macedonia, was born in late July 356 BC in Pella, Macedonia. He was one of the greatest military genius in history. He conquered much of what was then the civilized world, driven by his divine ambition of the world conquest and the creation of a universal world monarchy. Arrian describes Alexander: the strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one blue as the sky. Alexander inherited from his father King Philip the best military formation of the time. He was the first great conqueror who reached Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Asia up to western India.

His parents were Olympias and Philip II and according to some legends and oracles Alexander has divine origins: Zeus and Olympias. His mother Olympias, the Princess of Epirus, daughter of King Neoptolemus. Olympias was initiated into the cults of Dionysus and Orpheus. She was often jealous, vindictive and very protective of Alexander.

According to tradition, Olympias' ancestor was the mythical hero of the Iliad - Achilles, while his father, Philip II of Macedon, was said to descend from the Zeus' son - Hercules. The legend of Alexander of Macedon begins even before his birth. Alexander's parents, King Philip II of Macedon and Myrtali - the Princess of Epirus, later known as Olympias - were in their dreams warned about his birth. They had believed in the messages in dreams, so they invited the most renowned prophet of that time Arixstandros Telmisy, to interpret their dreams. Olympias had dreamt of a loud burst of thunder and lightening that had hit her womb, while in Philip's dream, he was sealing her womb with the seal of the lion. Arixstandros determined that Olympias was pregnant, and that the child would have the character of lion. The oracle of Delphi advised Philip to worship Zeus-Ammon, more than any other god. That brought the advent of Alexander's birth. Ammon (also Amon, Hammon, Zeus, Jupiter) represents the principle of invincibility, and ancient Egyptians had called Ammon "The Invisible", so any other attribution is superfluous.

Alexander's historical mission was to prepare the impulse of a new astrologic era, to terminate the old one and to transform ancient-obsolete forms of culture and world dominion. (This transition period from Aries to Pisces astrologic era in history is known as the Hellenistic period, and it has lasted for more than two centuries. One astrologic era has a duration of 2000 years.)

Even as a young boy Alexander was fearless and strong. At the age of 12, he tamed the beautiful and spirited Bucephalus ("ox-head" in Greek), a horse that no one else could ride. Philip was so proud of Alexander's horsemanship that he said: "O my son, seek out a kingdom worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee." Later, this famous stallion carried him as far as India up to the Hydaspes River, where he died. There Alexander built the city of Bucephala, in memory of his beloved horse.

Alexander knew the Iliad by heart. He loved Homer, and always slept with a copy of the Iliad under his pillow. His first teacher was Leonidas, a relative of Olympias. Leonidas instilled in Alexander his ascetic nature for which he became famous during his future campaigns; he lived simply, in a Spartan way, eating and sleeping together with his troops. Leonidas was replaced with Lysimachus, who taught Prince Alexander to play the lyre, and to appreciate the arts. In 343 Aristotle came to Pella at Philip's bidding to direct the education of his son. Alexander from age 13 to 16, together with the other boys belonging to the Macedonian aristocracy, was taught by Aristotle at the Mieza temple - about 30 kilometers from the royal palace at Pella. He was the great Greek philosopher himself who introduced them to the world of arts and sciences. He was also early schooled in war. Thus Aristotle who conquered the world with thought, was the teacher of Alexander who conquered the world with the sword.

Character of Alexander
Alexander's actions were inspired: by one god, one demigod, one hero and one sovereign; Dionysios - a divinity; Hercules - a demigod; Achilles - a hero; Cyrus the Great - The Persian emperor. His actions were guided by the sprit of Homer, who appeared in Alexander's dreams, while the Illiad was his manual of war. Like Achilles he was a superhuman hero and warrior, he exposed himself often to the extreme danger during battle. Alexander could support pain, hunger, thirst, heat, desperation and great suffering with immense patience, like Hercules. As a boy, his mother introduced him to the cult mysteries of the Dionysios. Through Dionysios, Alexander took extreme mobility and love for adventure. Alexander's epic actions were often guided by the ghost of Homer, like Hamlet's were by the ghost of his dead father. The early demonstration of Alexander's courage made Philip so proud of Alexander that he was even pleased to hear his subjects call him their general and Alexander their king.

As Alexander's father King Philip was assassinated by one of his officers Pausanias during the celebrations of his daughter's marrige to Olympias' brother (Alexander of Epirus) in July 336 BC. Alexander was immediately present to the army as a new King of the Macedon [at the age of 20].

Generosity of Alexander
Alexander had such an admiration for the beauty of his favorite mistress, named Pancaspe (Campaspe), that he gave orders to Apellesthat to be painted in the nude, and then discovering that the artist himself had fallen in love with the beautiful lady. Generous, great minded as and self controlled as he was, he offered Pancaspe to his friend artist as gift. He was and still greater owing to his control of himself, and of a greatness proved by this action as much as by any other victory: because he had conquered himself, and had presented not only his bedmate but his affection also to the artist. According to the tradition, she was the model from which the Aphrodite Anadyomene was painted.

Invasion on Minor Asian Countries
The reason for the invasion of Asia was to liberate the Greek cities taken by the Persians some years before. In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed the Dardanelles (i.e. Hellespont), with an army of 30,000 men, into Asia. He left his country under the care of Antipater, the general and friend of his father as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 troops. Alexander himself commanded about 30,000 foot soldiers and over 5,000 cavalry. This army had an excellent mixture of arms. Alexander's second in-command was Parmenio, who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor during Philip's lifetime; many of his family and supporters were entrenched in responsible positions. The army was accompanied by explorers, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials and historians.

Conquering nearby regions he conquered Syria, Phoenicia and Egypt in 332 BC. Then he won Tyre, the island city. It took 7 months to won this city with a very brutal naval battle. When it fell, Alexander sold 30,000 as slaves. Leaving his men in Syria, he advanced towards South and came to Gaza. It took more than a couple of months to control it, but then his way was open to Egypt.

In November 332 BC, he came to Egypt and the Egyptians welcomed him as their liberator. At Memphis Alexander was sacrificed to Apis, (Hapi), and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs of Egypt. There he founded the city Alexandria at the mouth of River Nile. He reorganized Egypt employing Egyptian governors.

Legends
About 570 BC, the Pharaoh Amasis rebuilt a temple in Siwa dedicated to the Amon (also Amun, or Ammon, or Hammon). Tradition claims that in Egypt, Dionysus had founded the oracle of Ammon. One day he (Dionysu) was wandering in the waterless desert with his followers when they saw a solitary ram. As they followed the animal it disappeared, but a spring of water was found where they saw the ram. There the god placed the oracle, and set the ram in in heaven as the constellation of Aries. ...When the gods fled to Egypt from the monstrous Typhon, Dionysus changed himself into goat...

The temple oracle was one of the most famous in antiquity and was famed for being able to answer difficult question. According to the tradition he was descended from the heroes Heracles and Perseus. Both of these heroes had visited the oracle in their lifetime, and Alexander thought it appropriate that he should visit the oracle as well. When he reached the oracle in the desert oasis, the priest gave him the traditional salutation of a pharaoh, as son of Ammon. Alexander consulted the oracle and the Oracle proclaimed Alexander the son of Deus - Amon (Zeus). It changed his life for ever.

Mesopotamia, Babylon, Persia
Then Alexander came to Mesopotamia in the Spring of 331 BC and then he came to Assyria, there he fought the last big battle on 1st Oct 331 BC. On that day was Lunar Eclipse and Alexander crossed the Tigris River. The King escaped and Alexander remained there till he secured the provinces. Then he proceeded to Babylonia along the River Tigris. Babylon welcomed him as the new King of Asia. From Babylon he went on to seize the riches which the Persian kings had amassed in their spring residence, Susa. Susa also surrendered, releasing fabulous amounts of silver and gold which corresponded to 120,000 talents, when the gold was estimated in terms of silver. Then he came in Eeraan and took control of it and he became the Lord of Asia. He entered the capital of Persia. From there he proceeded Eastwards into Central Asia.

In the Winter of 329 BC, Wherever he went and won the country he left his one person there, known as Satrap. Then he came to Kandhaar and Kaabul Valley crossing the Mountains of Hidukush, Alexander marched towards Khawak Pass (over 3,000 meters) with his troops in spite of food shortage, snow and very cold climate.

Spring 328 BC
In the Spring of 328 BC, (in about one year) Alexander had crossed westward the Hindukush Mountain into Bactria, left his trusted Satrap there. In July 328 BC, Bessus was captured and sent to Bactria where he was mutilated in Persian manner (losing his nose and ears - so Shoorpanakhaa's nose and ears were in order), and after several months he was publicly executed. The Bessus was treated with the barbaric cruelty which the rule of the old Persian monarchy prescribed for rebels. Alexander occupied Samarkand. Alexander killed his most trusted General which which widened the detachment between Alexander and many Macedonians.

Spring 327 BC
Till the Spring of 327, Alexander continued to move towards India, through Afagaanistaan, planting Greek cities. He attacked Oxyartes and the remaining three princes (Corienes, Catanes and Austanes) who controlled the hills of Paraetacene (modern Tadzhikistaan). One of Alexander's splendid moves was the capture of the Sogdian Rock. At the top of the rock was Oxyartes, who felt protected because of the vertical cliffs on each side. He provoked Alexander to send up men with wings to take the fortress. Alexander did exactly what Oxyartes ironically proposed. He sent up 300 experiences climbers during the night with the assurance of spectacular wealth if they succeeded. The climb - a "very severe" in Alpinistic manner of speech was concluded by the majority of the soldiers. Next morning Oxyartes was shocked to see these men "with wings" waving down at him. He surrendered with no resistance. Alexander and Oxyartes became good friends. Alexander married his sister (according some authors his daughter) Roxanne. In one version he captured Roxana, the daughter of Oxyartes, whom he made his wife. Before the summer of 327 he had once more crossed the Hindu Kush on his way to India. Alexander had now completed the conquest of the provinces North of the Hindu Kush by the reduction of the last mountain strongholds of the native princes.

Summer 327-Winter 326 - Invasion of India
Before entering India Alexander felt the need to reorganize his army that he had led through Persia. He burned all of the baggage wagons of Persian booty that impeded his mobility, he dismissed a large number of his soldiers, reshaping his army with several thousand east Eeraanian cavalrymen. The fighting forces were about 40,000, while the troops with auxiliary services were 120,000 men. Crossing again the Hindu Kush mountain, this time without snow. Alexander split his forces. Whilst the heavier troops with the luggage moved down the Kaabul valley and were sent through the Khyber Pass, Alexander led a body of lighter-armed troops and cavalry pushed up the valleys which join the Kabul from the north through the regions now known as Bajour, Swat and Buner, inhabited by Indian hill peoples. A number of their "cities" were reduced by Alexander.

In the meantime Perdiccas and Hephaestion had built a bridge over the Indus River (Sindhu), and by this in the spring of 326 Alexander passed into the Panjaab. India was dominated by three principalities, (1) that of Aambhi between the Indus and the Hydaspes (Jhelam or Jehlam River), centered in the great city of Takshshilaa (Gr. Taxila), (2) that of the Paurar Raajaa (Gr. Porus) between the Hydaspes and Acesines (Chenaab River), and (3) that of Abhisaar ( Gr. Alisares) between the same two rivers higher up, on the confines of Kashmeer.

Spring 326-Summer 325 BC
In spring 326, crossing the river Cofen, Alexander entered Takshshilaa, and King Taxiles equipped Alexander with elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival King Poras who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes and the Acesines. The kings of Takshshilaa Aambhi and Poras were at enmity, and for this cause the invader could reckon upon Omphis as a firm ally. Porus was prepared to contest the passage of the Hydaspes (Jhelam) with all his strength. Abhisaares preferred to play a double game and waited upon events. Alexander reached the Hydaspes (Jhelam) just as the rains broke, when the river was already swollen.

In June 326 BC, on the left bank of the Hydaspes (Jhelam), Alexander fought the 4th and the last of his pitched battles in Asia against Poras, one of the most powerful King of India - the one who put to proof more shrewdly than any of the others the quality of the Macedonian army as an instrument of war, and yet again emerged victorious. Poras held the opposite bank with a potent army, including 200 elephants. Alexander's army crossed the heavily defended river in dramatic manner during a night of torrential rain. The Indians were defeated in a brutal battle, although they fought with elephants. Poras fell deeply wounded into his hands. Alexander captured Poras and like the other kings he had defeated, allowed him to continue to reign his country. Alexander even conquered an autonomous province and granted it to Poras as a gift. He founded two cities there, Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and Bucephala (named after his horse Bucephalus, who died there); and Porus became his friend and ally. When he continued his progress Eastwards across the Acesines (Chenaab), Poras was an active ally of Alexander. Alexander moved along close under the hills. After crossing the Hydraotes (Ritvi or Raavee) he once more came into contact with hostile tribes, and the work of storming petty towns began again.

Alexander's next goal was to reach the Ganges River, which was actually 400 kilometers away from there. He was impatient to continue further, but when the Hyphasis River (Vyaas) was reached, his army exhausted in body and spirit denied to go further in the tropical rain. Then the Hyphasis (Vyaas) was reached, it was a bitter mortification to Alexander. For three days the will of king and people were locked in antagonism. His soldiers had heard stories of the powerful Indian tribes that lived on the Ganges and remembered the difficulty of the battle with Poras, they refused to proceed any farther. On finding the army insistent, he accepted their decision, but persuaded them to travel south down the rivers Hydaspes (Jhelam) and Indus so that they might reach the Ocean.

On the Hyphasis River (Vyaas) he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods. On the Hydaspes (Jhelam) Phoenician and Egyptian sailors built a fleet of 800 ships. He then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, merciless massacre; at the invasion of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes (Raavee) River, Alexander was heavily wounded. During this journey, Alexander sought out the Indian philosophers, the Braahman, who were famous for their wisdom, and debated them on philosophical issues. He became legendary for centuries in India for being both a wise philosopher and a courageous conqueror.

Alexander and his army reached the mouth of the Indus in July 325 BC. Alexander left the conquered portion of India - East of the Indus to be governed under Poras, Omphis (Aambh) of Takshshilaa, and Abhisaares; the country west of the Indus under Macedonian governors, and set out to explore the great river to its mouth. The fleet prepared on the Hydaspes (Jhelam) sailed in October 325 BC, while a land army moved along the bank. The confluence of the Hydaspes (Jhelam) and Acesines (Chenaab) passed, the Macedonians were once more in a region of hostile tribes with towns to be stormed.

Summer 325 BC
The Raajaa of Patiyalaa abandoned his country and fled. It was the high summer of 325 when Alexander reached Patiyaalaa, situated at the apex of the Indus delta, built a harbor there and explored both arms of the Indus, which then ran into the Rann of Kutch. From here he explored both arms of the delta to the ocean, now seen by the Macedonians for the first time. He had determined that the Indus fleet should be used to explore this new world and try to find a water way between the Indus and the Persian Gulf. A great part of the land-forces had been already sent off in late October 325 BC. Alexander himself intended to lead the land-forces, across the dangerous, coast of Baloochistaan, through the terrible sand-wastes of the Gedrosian Desert (Makaraan).

September-October 325 BC
Alexander marched along the coast through Gedrosia (modern Baloochistaan), but he was soon forced by mountainous country to turn inland. Alexander, on land, lost nearly three quarters of his army because of the severe conditions of the desert, and in a unexpected monsoon flood while they were encamped in a Wadee many of them died. When the survivors reached the region called Carmania, their fortune changed radically as they were welcomed into the prosperous country. Alexander and his men celebrated the end of their calamities in the desert and traveled in luxury to Harmezeia, where they rejoined to Nearchus' fleet, which also had suffered losses. Then the joined army marched to Persis to take rest.

In His Own Country
Alexander's own empire was weakened by years of absence and rumors of his death, and it had not functioned altogether efficiently and on Alexander's reappearance many incompetent and scoundrel in high office had to be replaced by better men. Between 326 and 324 BC over a third of his governors (i.e. satraps) were replaced and six were executed. In spring 324 he was back in Susa, capital of Elam in the Persian Empire. At Susa Alexander held a banquet to celebrate the conquest of the Persian Empire. In promotion of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into one master race, he and 80 of his officers took Persian wives; he married Darius' daughters Barsine (also called Stateira) and 10,000 of Macedonian soldiers married with native wives were given generous gifts. His decisions were heavily criticized by Macedonians. This discontent was now disqualified by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Orientals. An actual mutiny of the Macedonians broke out at Opis (324 BC.) on the Tigris, when Alexander's decision to send home Macedonian veterans was interpreted as a move toward transferring the seat of power to Asia. There was an open insurrection involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander discharged his whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition deceased. An emotional scene of reconciliation was followed by a vast banquet with 9,000 guests to celebrate the ending of the misunderstanding and the partnership in government of Macedonians and Persians as partners in the empire. 10,000 veterans were now sent back to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was eliminated.

Death of Alexander
Suddenly, in Babylon, while busy with plans to improve the irrigation of the Euphrates and to settle the Arabic coast of the Persian Gulf; Alexander was taken sick after a splendid entertainment in honor of Nearchus departure for Arabia. There he drank much unmixed wine, and finally, filling a huge beaker, downed it at a gulp. The pain increased and no one was able to do anything helpful and Alexander continued in acute suffering. His Friends asked: "To whom do you leave the kingdom?" and he replied: "To the best (the strongest)."

These were his last words. Predicca has already received his ring before he died, as the symbol of his regency. On the sundown of 10th of June, after the ten day fever, in the Palace of Nabukodonossor, Alexander died. Historians disagree about the date of Alexander's death but according to contemporary Babylonian Astronomic Diary, which is most credible and accurate source, Alexander died on 29th Aiaru (10th of June). Alexander III of Macedon died in his 33rd year - 323 BC; and had reigned for 12 years and eight months. Some historians disagree about the death of Alexander, and state that this occurred in consequence of a draught of poison, it seems necessary for us to mention their account also.

His Friends staged a vast contest in honor of his funeral. Ptolemy, the later king of Egypt, transferred Alexander's body to Alexandria in Egypt. He received divine honors, both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities. No heir had been appointed to the throne, and his generals adopted Philip II's illegitimate son, Philip Arrhidaeus, and Alexander's posthumous son by Roxanne, Alexander IV, as kings, sharing out the Satrapies among themselves, after much negotiation...

What Was Alexander?
Alexander had the iron will and capacity to lead his men; he knew when to withdraw and to modify and adapt his policy. Alexander had imaginative fantasy of genius which was driven with the strong romantic figures like Achilles, Heracles, and Dionysus. He was sometimes cruel and autocratic. The only clear characteristics that emerge are his outstanding military genius and his successful politics. The only psychologically clear motive is the pursuit of glory: the urge to surpass the heroes of myth and to attain divinity. The success of his ambition, at immense cost in human terms, spread a veneer of Greek culture far into central Asia, which remained present during the Hellenistic era for a long time after his death.

Alexander had founded over 20 new cities - most of them in the East of Tigris, Alexandria in Egypt is the notable one. The Greek influence remained strong and the colonization process was continued by Alexander's successors. The diffusion of Hellenic customs over Asia till India was one of the most dominant effects of Alexander's conquests, but his plans for ethnic fusion, did not have success. The Macedonians rejected the idea of ethnic fusion and in the later Seleucid Empire the Hellenistic element was dominant. After his death, nearly all the noble Susa marriages were dissolved.

As a conqueror Alexander is among the greatest the history has seen. He had adapted new tactics and created innovative forms of warfare (battles against the Shak nomads, or against Poras with his elephants). His strategy was genial and imaginative and he knew how to use the opportunities that occurred in every battle that were decisive for the victory.

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